Mongolia…
- a country of unique nomadic culture, blue sky and homeland of Chinggis Khaan
- a country of endless steppes, crystal clear lakes, soaring mountains, fresh rivers, exciting and spectacular scenery of      Gobi with birthplace of dinosaurs
- a land of rich blend of Buddism and Shamanism
- a land whose people created the largest land empire the world has seen, yet today remains largely undiscovered by   the international traveller

Our trips are as rugged or relaxed as you like and our staff are friendly, reliable so make you feel like meeting your old friends.

Visas	Medical Information	Currency	Religion
How to get Mongolia	Postal Services	Photography	Sports
How to get around	Embassies	Electricity	Arts
When to go	Food service	People
Tipping/Bargaining	What to take	Traditional Medicine
Banks	Shops & Shopping	The 12 Year Calendar
Accommodation	Tourism Information	Lifestyle
Telephones	Water Quality	Music & Singing
Customs	Radio & Television	The Ger
Language	Climate	Cultural Tips
Activities	Time Differences	Food
Dangers/Annoyances	Maps	Tsagaan sar
Public Holidays	Freight Forwarding

Visas

Any foreign visitor wishing to enter Mongolia must have a valid passport and visa.
Mongolian visas are issued by Mongolian Diplomatic Missions abroad or upon arrival at a special request.

For all information related to consular matters (e.g.: visas, citizenship, etc.), please contact in person by telephone or E-mail the nearest diplomatic or consular mission of Mongolia. (Mongolian diplomatic and consular missions abroad)

The following materials are required to obtain Mongolian visa:

The visa issuing rules have been eased since 1997. Practically a 30-days tourist visa can be obtained from any Mongolian Embassy abroad (see the list) within 24 hours for approximately US$ 40.00. Additional fees are charged for urgent visa.

Alternatively, those who travel from countries with no Mongolian mission present, can get visa either from the Mongolian Embassy in Beijing or Moscow , or at the arrival points: Buyant Ukhaa International Airport in Ulaanbaatar , Dzamyn Uud Railway Station on southern border or Sukhbaatar Railway station on the northern border

Visitors staying longer than 30 days are required to apply for registration with the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens.

Visitors planning to stay for more than 180 days should obtain a long-term residence permission.

Please beware that that procrastination with visa extension may result in several visits to the Ministry of External Relations and up to $ 5.00 fine for each day after visa has expired.

Visitors are also advised to obtain proper transit visa from China or Russia . There were cases when foreigners who failed to secure two-time transit visa were denied entrance to these countries on their way back home from Mongolia .

NOTE: USA citizens can travel now to Mongolia without visa, as a respective agreement was signed in 2001.

Documents needed to apply for Mongolian visa

1.Valid passport
2.One passport sized photo
3.Application form(Click here to download the Application Form, Application Form-Tourist )
4. Travel itinerary (if the visit is for more than 7 days)
5.

• Preferably, either an official invitation of the receiving entity -state, government, NGO, business entity or a request of the sending country and the organization.


• Or, for tourists wishing to stay over one week up to 90 days, a letter of invitation from a travel agency.


• Or, if you travel on a personal invitation of a Mongolian citizen, an invitation approved by the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens of Mongolia, and applicant's written statement concerning your financial credibility to cover stay in Mongolia


• For those passing Mongolia in transit, onward ticket and visa for next destination

6. AIDS test required for students and anyone staying longer than 3 months.

Fees charged for Mongolian visa.

A) Single entry-exit visa - US$25; for urgent service (within a working day) US$50,
B) Multiple entry-exit visa valid for six months - US$65; for urgent service (within a working day) US$130,
C) Multiple entry-exit visa valid for one year - US$130; for urgent service (within a working day) US$ 260
D) Visa extension valid for one week - US$15; for urgent service (within a working day) US$30; US$2 per a day exceeding a week.
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HOW TO GET THERE?

By Air:
The majority of visitors arrive to Mongolia by air through Buyant Ukha International Airport located 18 km to the southwest of Ulaanbaatar. Been reconstructed in 1990, immigration and customs formalities
as well as luggage delivery are very prompt. The international air transport is operated by MIAT, Air Mongolia, Korean Airline and Chinese Airlines and Russian Aeroflot.

• From EUROPE to MOSCOW (Russian Federation) then to Ulaanbaatar with Aeroflot (SU) or
  MIAT Mongolian Airline (OM)


• From EUROPE, USA, EAST ASIA, Australia & New Zealand to BEIJING (China) with the
  major carriers and then to Ulaanbaatar with MIAT (OM) or Air China (CA)


• From BERLIN and FRANKFURT (twice in a week) to ULAANBAATAR by MIAT (OM)


• via Moscow From EUROPE, USA, EAST ASIA, Australia & New Zealand to OSAKA (Japan)


• with major carriers and then to Ulaanbaatar with MIAT Mongolian Airlines (OM) or Air China (CA)
  
• From USA, EAST ASIA, Australia & New Zealand to SEOUL by major carriers and then to Ulaanbaatar with MIAT Mongolian Airlines (OM) or Korean Air (KAL)

MIAT Mongolian Airlines (OM), the national carrier of Mongolia, flies many domestic routes as well as flying to numerous foreign destinations, including Moscow, Beijing, Berlin, Frankfurt, Alma Ata, Irkutsk, Hohhot, Seoul, Osaka and Singapore. Its fleet of twenty-one aircrafts includes the Aerobus 310, the Boeing B727-200, and the Antonov (AN24, AN26, and AN30). For flight schedules check the official website: www.miat.com

Click here to obtain MIAT: International Flight Schedule | Domectic Flight Schedule

By Train:

A simple way of expedition-transportation to Mongolia for visitors is travel by Trans Siberian Railway, which stretches from Russian borders via Ulaanbaatar to the Chinese borders. Exploring Mongolia following the rail lines of the legendary Trans Mongolian and Trans Siberian Railways is more than a simple way of transportation, it is an expedition in itself. Total distance by rail from Beijing to St Petersburg is 7,925 km. Travelers can join in Moscow (or St Petersburg) or in Beijing (or Hong Kong and Hanoi). There are usually nine compartments in each carriage with four berths in each (Twin share rail compartments are available for a supplementary price). See for timetable at http://www.railcom.mn/mtz2/passenger.htm.
Contact to ubtz-vokzal@magicnet.mn
This email address is being protected from spam bots, you need Javascript enabled to view it

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HOW TO GET AROUND

By air:

MIAT Mongolian Airlines operates scheduled and charter domestic flights (An-24) throughout Mongolia’s 21 provinces. Also Aero Mongolia, Hangard, and Blue Sky run flights. Most flights have their hum in Ulaanbaatar, so getting from one destination to another inside Mongolia often requires a touch-down in UB. Some delays in scheduling are to be taken into account in preparing tourist itineraries. A round trip to Dalanzadgad or Moron costs 142 USD.

By road:

Mongolia’s road network, including both state and local roads, is total approximately 49,000 kilometers. They connect Mongolia’s 211 cities and towns, as well as its 160 smaller villages. There are 11,063 km of state road and 38,187 km of local roads in Mongolia. Most of the roads in Mongolia are gavel or earth. Only 1,670 km of state and local roads are paved, while an additional 3,820 km of state and local roads are classified as “improved” gravel and earth road. The majority of roads to tourist camps are in reality just tracks laid out across the steppes by the jeeps that ply those routes with regularity. Thus the time required for a given distance will vary considerably, depending on the quality of the road, as well as variables like the weather, the type of vehicle used, and so forth. For example, a trip to from Ulaanbaatar to Kharakhorum, which is a distance of approx. 360 km, will probably take 4 hours. A trip of equal distance through back-country roads could take a full day or even longer. The best means of travel in much of Mongolia is the horse or the camel.

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When to go

Mongolia's tourism season is from May to October because of the difficult climate at other times of the year. Visiting out of season is not a problem as long as you can tolerate cold weather, dust storms and difficulties in traveling. If you want to see the Naadam Festival, you'll need to come in July. However, July and August are the two wettest months of the year. The best time to visit the Gobi is June or September as temperatures aren't so hot then.
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Tipping/Bargaining

Tipping - Tipping in restaurants, bars and cafes is not expected although, as more and more tourists are providing tips, the staff are of course very appreciative. Most places will charge a 13% sales tax on top of their menu prices so be aware of this. If you wish to leave a tip, 10% of your total order is a very reasonable amount.
Bargaining - The only place to think about bargaining now is at the black market. Most of the shops and markets in town have fixed prices which are often displayed on the goods. Do not try to bargain here. At the black market, tourists are unlikely to be charged very much more than the locals, unless they are buying antiques, jewellery and other cultural items. By all means try and get a price down but be reasonable. For example, as a guide, don't try for less than 60-70% of the asking price. And only start bargaining if you're seriously interested in buying the item.

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Banks

Most banks and the larger hotels in Ulaanbaatar will be able to change the major currencies, although US Dollars are the most widely accepted. It is also possible to change travellers cheques and get cash advances on your credit card. American Express, VISA and Mastercard are the most widely accepted. In the Aimag centres, you'll certainly find at least one bank, but they will not be able to accept credit cards or traveller's cheques. They may be able to change US Dollars and Euro but the exchange rate will be a lot lower than that available in the capital.
In Ulaanbaatar, one of the most centrally located banks for both traveller's cheque cashing and credit card advances is the Trade and Development Bank.
If you have US dollars or Euro in cash, you can get better rates of exchange from the licensed money changers. A number of different currencies can be exchanged.

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Accommodation

The standards of accommodation vary widely between Ulaanbaatar and the countryside. There are now a large number of hotels, guest houses and dormitories within the capital with prices between US$5 and US$120. The quality of the facilities, services and food generally increases in price.
In the countryside, there a few hotels of generally a poorer standard in the Aimag centres, although most tourists will stay in specially constructed ger camps. These camps provide accommodation in the round felt houses used by nomads and usually have separate toilet, washing and restaurant facilities. Prices are around US$30-60 per night.
Tourists can camp virtually where they like although they are advised to stay away from settlements. Laws also prohibit camping within certain zones of protected areas.

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Telephones

The Mongolian telephone system is in the process of being modernised but still lacks many of the services we rely on elsewhere. Dialing Mongolia is relatively simple although may take several attempts. Mongolia's national code is '976'. Making international telephone calls from Ulaanbaatar is relatively easy. Most hotels have International Direct Dial Facilities. Alternatively, calls can be made from various telephone exchanges around the city. The 'Central Post' Building located on the southwest corner of Sukhbaatar Square is the largest telephone exchange.
Cheaper calls are available if calling from other telephones in the city, i.e. offices & hotels, especially between 22.00 and 07.00 weekdays, 17.00 and 07.00 Saturdays and all day Sunday.
Domestic Calls also have the same discount rates available. Calls are charged according to distance from Ulaanbaatar and range from MNT 174 to MNT 261 per minute. Calls within the city are around MNT 5 per minute.
The large telephone exchange on Sukhbaatar Square has the facilities for you to send faxes and emails. The cost for faxing depends on where the fax is being sent to. As a guide, a fax taking one minute to the United Kingdom would cost approximately MNT 3000.

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Customs

Every tourist will complete a customs declaration form on arrival, which must be retained by them until their departure. This allows the free import and export of articles for personal use during your stay. The contents of checked-in baggage must be declared on arrival if the total value of those contents exceed US$1000 in value. The contents of checked-in baggage must be declared upon departure if the total value of those goods exceeds US$500.
top Mongolia allows the following items to be brought in duty free:
• 1 Litre of Spirits
• 2 Litres of Wine
• 3 Litres of Beer
• 200 Cigarettes
• 250 Grams of Tobacco
The customs declaration forms asks the visitor to declare the amount and currencies of money being carried. Visitors are advised that if they fail to declare the amount of money they are carrying, the money can be confiscated by customs officials. Visitors taking antiques and fossils out of the country must have official documentation to do so. Some shops will provide the necessary documents upon purchase.

Language
The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, although English is now beginning to be widely used by many residents of the capital. Mongol is the language of most of the population of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia and of separate groups living in other provinces of the People's Republic of China. The modern Mongol language developed after the Mongol People's Revolution of 1921 on the basis of the Khalkh dialect. The Cyrillic script was introduced in the 1940's and is now the alphabet used by most Mongolians. However, there have been several calls during the last ten democratic years for the traditional script to be reintroduced. There are a total of 35 letters in the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet. There are many phrasebooks and dictionaries available in the capital now.

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Activities

A number of activities are available to both independent travellers and groups. Among the most popular are horse riding, camel trekking, fishing, bird watching, hiking, mountaineering, rafting and hunting. For further details of the activities available and suggestions on the best locations please contact info@asiannomads.mn
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Dangers/Annoyances

Mongolia is a safe place to be. As a visitor you are unlikely to experience any serious problems. However, like anywhere else there are a few things that visitors should be aware of, things that will need extra care and attention.
Foreign visitors are targets for a very small minority of thieves. Theft is seldom violent. Pick pocketing and bag slitting is most common in crowded places such as the black market, on buses or at tourist attractions such as Gandan Monastery. Valuables should be kept in a money belt and kept underneath your clothing. Be careful about being seen with large amounts of money outside.
Being out late at night is not advisable, especially if you are alone. Avoid ger districts and other poorly lit areas. Take a torch with you. Use a proper taxi if you can find one.
Vodka may be a popular drink in Mongolia which used in many celebrations, but it is also the source of a big alcohol problem. The problems are more serious in Ulaanbaatar and the aimag centres than in the countryside. Drunks tend to me more of an annoyance than a danger. Drunks are easily recognised by a stumbling walk. They tend to be on their own rather than in large groups. If you are approached by a drunk, try to walk away. If they follow, try running - they're unlikely to catch up with you if they've had a lot to drink. If you can find a policeman, all the better. Experience has shown that they are very tough on drunks annoying or threatening foreigners, although the immediate punishment may be something you're not used to.
Dogs, both stray and domestic should be avoided. Many are vicious and some are rabid. This is the case whether you're in a ger district in the city or at a ger in the middle of the countryside.
When it comes to getting train tickets, getting on a bus, walking through a market or entering shops, don't be surprised if you suddenly find an elbow in your side or a kick in the shin. It's not personal. It's the Mongolian Scramble. Go anywhere where there's a lot of people and you'll find out about it. Being polite won't get you very far - nor will getting angry. In Mongolia, do as the Mongolian's do. But don't get carried away!!
Power cuts and water shortages used to be common - but now very infrequent. Beggars are beginning to be more and more of a problem. No matter what your opinions are about begging, the increase is due to the number of tourists giving cash to children. If you wish to donate some money, find out about projects that are supporting the city's street children and put a donation to the best possible use.

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Public Holidays in 2000

New Year's Day - 1st January
Tsagaan Tsar - 6th February
Mothers' and Children's Day - 1st June
Naadam - 11th to 13th July
Independence Day - 26th November
and in 2001 - New Year's Day - 1st January, Tsagaan Tsar - 24th January, Mothers' and Children's Day - 1st June, Naadam - 11th to 13th July, Independence Day - 26th November.
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Medical Information

For detailed medical information, visitors to Mongolia should consult their doctors or refer to specialist information from the Internet.
Some milk is unpasteurised and should be boiled. Powdered or tinned milk is available and is advised, but make sure that it is reconstituted with pure water. Avoid dairy products which are likely to have been made from unboiled milk. Only eat well-cooked meat and fish, preferably served hot. Pork, salad and mayonnaise may carry increased risk. Vegetables should be cooked and fruit peeled.
Rabies is present. For those at high risk, vaccination before arrival should be considered. If you are bitten, seek medical advice without delay. For more information, see the Health appendix.
Diarrhoeal diseases and outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis occur. There is some risk of plague. Immunisation against hepatitis A is recommended. Hepatitis B is highly endemic.
There are almost 23,000 hospital beds and over 5000 doctors in Mongolia. However, health care facilities available to foreigners are limited. All Mongolian hospitals are very short of most medical supplies, including basic care items, drugs and spare parts for medical equipment. Reciprocal agreements with the UK or USA are not available and US medical insurance is apparently not valid in Mongolia. Doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash payment for health services. Visitors are urged to have health insurance including cover for evacuation to Hong Kong and to take with them any regular medication. Emergency care is available at the Russian Hospital, although a translator is essential.

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Postal Services

Letters and parcels posted abroad can take anything from ten days to a few months to arrive at their destination, but they do usually arrive. The current rates are relatively expensive; postcards MNT 400, letters under 20 grams MNT 550. Registered mail starts at MNT 950. Parcel rates range from around US$14 to US$27, for a 1Kg parcel, depending on the destination. An express mail service is available for a limited number of countries. Prices to send a 1Kg package range from US$25 to US$40 depending on the destination. The central post office in Ulaanbaatar has a good range of postcards available. Stamp collectors will be surprised at the range of stamps available.

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Embassies

Mongolia has over 50 Embassies, Consulates, Permanent Missions, Trade Missions and Honorary Consulates. For full details including addresses, telephone and fax numbers, and email addresses: www.mongolia-foreign-policy.net/index.php?moduls=61
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Food service

Despite what you might hear about food supplies in Mongolia, it's now very simple to have a balanced diet, even if you're a vegetarian. If you're intending to eat out in Ulaanbaatar, there are a large number of restaurants serving quality, Chinese, Indian, Korean, Japanese, Italian, English, French, Russian, Latin American and of course Mongolian cuisines.
There are also a lot of supermarkets and markets selling both Mongolian and imported goods from China, Russia, East Asia and Europe. The domestic meat and dairy products are good value and considerably more tasty than meat you may find at home. The one used by most of the expatriates living in the country is the Mercury Market situated just a couple of hundred meters west of the Circus.
In the countryside things are a bit different. Although some of the larger Aimag centres will have supplies suitable for foreigners, the Sums will have little more than biscuits and chocolate. As you move out of the city, you also lose the quality in restaurant food. In most cases only Mongolian-style food will be available.
The extreme climate here means that many Mongolians, especially those living in the countryside have to eat a lot of protein and fat to keep themselves warm and healthy. Visiting herders in the countryside will inevitably mean that you will be offered a number of meat and dairy products. Even if some of them look unappetizing, you will please your host greatly if only you try a little.

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What to take

What you need to bring depends on where you'll go when you travel, what activities you'll be undertaking, whether you're an independent traveller and what accommodation you'll be using. Here are a list of suggestions:
Passport, US$ or Euro cash, money belt, sleeping bag, tent, petrol stove, daypack, camera and batteries, torch and batteries, water bottle, warm clothing, wet weather clothing, sunglasses, first aid kit, small gifts for nomadic families.

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Shops & Shopping

Most of Mongolia’s economy is based on natural products. Hand woven carpets, leather clothing and articles, woolen clothing, furs, cashmere, camel hair products, Mongolian oil and water paintings, and wooden toys, puzzles and games.
There are a number of souvenir shops. The most popular items are paintings, antiques, handicrafts, carpets, books, cashmere, traditional Mongolian clothing, leather goods, wall hangings, puzzles, postcards, snuff bottles and wood carvings.
The food markets are well stocked on Mongolia, Russian, East and West European products although they may be a little more expensive than you expect. Many of the shops throughout Mongolia are in fact small kiosks within larger shops. You will find that many shops sell the same things so you'll have to look hard to find exactly what you want. Along the streets of Ulaanbaatar you will find many 'Tuuts', small kiosks that sell snacks and general provisions.
The most adventurous traveler may wish to go out to the infamous “black market”, which is a giant flea market on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar. Almost anything can be bought at this market, which is always very crowded. Visitors should be aware however that pickpockets are a problem here and therefore care should be taken with wallets and purses.
For more information on shops to visit in Ulaanbaatar.

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Tourism Information

The main tourist information center run by Mongolian Tourism Board located inside the Central Post Office. You will find adequate tourist information and services from there including tourist camps, hotels, tour operators, hiring vehicles, guides and assist you to plan your tour in Mongolia.
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Water Quality
Many visitors to Mongolia have drunk the tap and well water without boiling or treating it first. They have been lucky. Tourists are advised to buy mineral water or at least boil their water before using it. Giardia and other water-borne diseases can easily be picked up. Mineral water is in good supply in the capital and many of the Aimag centres.
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Radio & Television

Mongolia has a number of radio stations broadcasting traditional and modern Mongolian and International music. BBC World Service has an FM transmitter broadcasting on FM103.1 in Ulaanbaatar. Other international radio stations can be heard on short-wave.
Mongolia has six television station, UBS, Mongol TV, Channel 25, TV5, TV9 and Eagle, the latter providing some programmes in English. However, cable television is now installed in many flats providing access to BBC World, CNN, Australian TV, Star TV Network, French, German, Italian, Russian, Portuguese and Chinese channels.

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Climate

The Mongolian Climate is one of extremes - hot summers and freezing cold winters. Known as the 'Land of Blue Skies', it has over 260 sunny days each year. The winter is long and cold with temperatures often well below -30o Centigrade. Despite these temperatures, the blue winter sky makes it often feel warmer. There is very little snowfall but it and ice can remain for several weeks at a time. The rainy season is from July to September, but the showers are often brief. The summer is a very pleasant time because, although temperatures can reach +40o Centigrade, the air is very dry. The Gobi usually has the hottest temperatures. Summer evenings can be cool because of Mongolia's high altitude. The Spring is a time of strong winds, especially difficult in the sandy areas of the Gobi. For up-to-date details of the weather in Mongolia, visit www.wunderground.com/global/MO.html or specifically Ulaanbaatar, www.weather.com/cities/mg__ulan_bator.html
or http://cnn.com/WEATHER/html/UlaanBaatarMongolia.html
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Time Differences
Most of Mongolia is 8 hours ahead of GMT. However, the three western aimags of Khovd, Uvs and Bayan Ulgii are GMT+7.
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FREIGHT FORWARDING

If you're intending to spend a fair amount of time in Mongolia or need to ship back any large souvenirs, there are a few freight forwarding companies that can help. Both train and plane services are available and prices vary. Each company should be able to help with giving costs and timeframes.Try the following:

DHL International

Tel: (976-11) 310919. Fax: (976-11) 325772. Email: dhluln@magicnet.mn This email address is being protected from spam bots, you need Javascript enabled to view it

TNT International Express

Tel: (976-11) 313389/311655/311653. Fax: (976-11) 313809.
Email: tntmongolia@magicnet.mn This email address is being protected from spam bots, you need Javascript enabled to view it
Website: www.monairtrans.net

Mongolian Express Co., Ltd.

Tel: (976-11) 318329. Fax: (976-11) 318125. Email: monexpress@magicnet.mn This email address is being protected from spam bots, you need Javascript enabled to view it

Crown Worldwide Federal Express.

Tel: (976-11) 322064

Express Mail.
Tel: (976-11) 327102

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Maps

Obtaining maps of Mongolia abroad can be very difficult. There are a few large scale maps around but for more detail, try searching out airline maps. On arrival in Mongolia, a greater range can be found, including tourism, road, geographical and ecological maps. The best place to buy them is at the 'Map Centre' near Elba Centre Electronics Shops and Gandan Monastery.
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Currency

The Mongolian currency is the Tugrug (T or MNT) which is available in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 5000 & 10,000 Tugrug Notes. Coins are beginning to become into circulation and are in denominations of MNT 20, 50, 100 and 200. All notes carry the face of Chinggis Khan or Sukhbaatar on them and because of their age, can often look alike. The exchange rate is constantly changing. The rate as of August 2000 is US$1 = MNT1075. For an up-to-date exchange rate visit www.oanda.com/converter/classic
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Photography

Mongolia must be one of the most photogenic countries in the world. The landscapes, wildlife, culture and people create a wealth of opportunities. Films and camera batteries are available in the capital for most types of cameras. However, you are advised to bring some supplies with you just in case. Photo processing can also be done in Ulaanbaatar but the quality is often lacking. Slide film is very difficult to obtain.
Photography is not allowed in monasteries or temples. Exceptions are made on rare occasions and only with the permission of the Lamas. Please respect the decisions of the staff at the Monastery or Temple. In some museums, you may have to pay an extra fee to use a still or video camera. A regulation exists that states that tourists should pay to take photographs within Mongolia's protected areas. However, it is often not enforced. Care should be taken in some places, i.e. photographing military establishments, border crossings and government buildings.

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Electricity

The power supply in Ulaanbaatar is now very reliable and there are only the occasional black-outs. Electricity is 220V, 50Hz. The sockets throughout the country accommodate the European-style 2-pin plugs. In the countryside, the power supply still has frequent interruptions. In many cases this is due to the cost of fuel. Wiring in many places needs updating and so care should be undertaken.

Language Publications
There are two weekly English language newspapers, the UB Post and the Mongol Messenger. There are also a few books and magazines to look out for which give an insight into life, history and culture in Mongolia; UB Guide, My Mongolia, This is Mongolia, Fifty Routes through Mongolia, Mongolia Travel Guide, etc. A number of basic maps of Ulaanbaatar and Mongolia are available.

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People

Archaeological finds suggest that primitive man appeared in what is now Mongolia 300,000 to 350,000 years ago and recent investigations suggest that Mongols take their origin from the Huns (or Huunu) who lived in Central Asian Countries many years ago.

The term 'Mongol' only gained prominence in the early 13th Century with the emergence of the Mongolian ethnic unit and the formation of a single state. The word 'Mongol' has two suggested meanings. The first is a geographical name 'Mon gol' which means the river Mon. The second suggestion is that it should be pronounced 'Mun gol', interpreting 'Mun' as correct, basic or true and 'gol' as pivot, centre or essence. The combination would then be 'true essence'.

The development of the present ethnic composition has gone through several historical stages. The formation and disintegration of numerous military tribal alliances of ancient nomads and their mass migrations over vast expanses of the Euro-Asian steppes, resulted in the emergence of the Mongolian Nationality which consists 86% of Khalkh-Mongol tribes. The population of Mongolia consists of twenty ethnic groups although their are few differences in language. Only the Kazakhs speak in their mother tongue. Kazakhs, Derbets, Buryats and other national minorities are concentrated where they have always lived.

The 1998 population of Mongolia was estimated to be 2.42 million, showing an increase of 1.4% compared to 1997. However, even today, there are more Mongolians living outside Mongolia than in it.49.6% of the population are male. In 1998, the percentage of the population aged under 15 years was 35.6 and over 65 years, 3.9%. The population density is around 1.5 people per square kilometre. Seventy-two percent of the population are in the labour force.

There are approximately five hundred and twenty thousand families of which one hundred and seventy thousand are herders. The others live in urban centres. Approximately 51% of the population is urbanised, 27% in Ulaanbaatar. The birth rate is 2.06%, the death rate 0.66% and infant mortality rate 3.5%.

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Clothing

The del is the Mongols' traditional garment worn on both workdays and special days. It is a long, loose gown cut in one piece with the sleeves; it has a high collar and widely overlaps at the front. The del is girdled with a sash.

Each ethnic group living in Mongolia has its own del distinguished by cut, colour and trimming. The distinctions go unnoticed by foreigners, yet for the Mongols they are obvious.

Before the revolution, all social strata in Mongolia had their own manner of dressing. Livestock-breeders, for example, wore plain dels, which served them both summer and winter. The priests wore yellow dels with a cape or khimj, thrown over it. Secular feudal lords put on smart hats and silk waistcoats.

Today, townspeople tend to wear European-style clothes. In the countryside, however, the modern attire is inconvenient and impractical. The del has several uses – as a coat, as a blanket, and as means of concealing yourself when going to the toilet on the open steppe. In the cities, as people start aging, especially the women, begin to appreciate the advantages of the del and wear it, trying to excel each other in the choice of fabric, as well as in the elegance of the cut and originality of the trimmings.

Commonly there are three varieties of del, each for a particular season. The first, the dan del, is very much like a dress, a frock cut in one piece from plain cloth without padding. Rural women wear dan dels all year around. In cold weather they put on warm clothes over them. Terleg is a slightly padded del. And finally the winter del is padded with sheepskin or cotton wool.

Dels for men and women are of the same cut. The difference is that male dels are wider and of more demure colours. The pattern is simple enough. The sleeves are cut together with the gown and there are only a few minor details. Moreover the tailor does not have to worry about the precise length and width.

Measurements are usually made using the hand rather than a tape measure. The 'too' is the distance between the thumb and the middle finger, the 'soom' the distance between the thumb and the forefinger and the 'khuruu' the length of the forefinger.

The del for everyday wear is grey, brown or some other dark colour, while the holiday del is a bright blue, green or claret silk with a silk sash of contrasting colour several metres long. The sash is not simply an adornment. It also serves as a soft corset facilitating long rides on horseback. In days gone by, men would attach a sheathed knife, a tobacco pouch, a flint and a pipe-cleaning hook to the belt. Characteristically, the Mongol always hid his pipe in his boots.

The del collar, breasts and sleeves are trimmed with leather and colour brocade tape, which can be wide or narrow depending on the wearer's taste. The del buttons, if they are not commercially produced from decorative stones or silver, are narrow strips of cloth tied into intricate knots.

Traditional dels are normally seen now only at concerts or official occasions.

In addition to the del is the jacket known as a khurim. In cold weather it is put on over the del. The gutal is the high boot made from unbending leather and lined with fine and thin felt. They are decorated with different designs. Both the left and right are traditionally the same shape and were worn with thick socks made from quilted cloth. Traditional boots are without heels and have turned up toes. Mongolian hats are still very much the normal attire in the countryside. The traditional hat is a hat for all seasons trimmed with fur, fox fur in most cases. The sides of the hat can be tied down to keep the ears warm or tied on top in the warmer periods. The hats are worn by both men and by women. In the past, headgear was worn to show social status. The design is also symbolic. The pointed top of the hat represents Mount Sumber, the legendary land of the Mongol forefathers. The knot on the top represents the unity of the nation, red ribbons are the sun's rays and the broad brim represents the country's inaccessibility.

Because of the different ethnic groups residing in Mongolia, there are distinctions in the way they all dress. Therefore it is estimated that between them all, there are about 400 different types of garments, 20 boots, 10 sashes and 20 types of hats.

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Traditional Medicine

Traditional Mongolian Medicine has made a revival after the communist era, due to the lack of western medicines and the incurability of some diseases. Based on Tibetan, Indian and Chinese medicine, traditional medicine has been used here since the late 17th century when it was founded by Luvsandanzanjantsan. It is believed that all manner of physical, mental and psychological ailments can be cured through the use of herbs, mineral water, plants and animal parts. The diagnosis and treatment are based on the five elements of fire, water, earth, wood and wind. The medicines are administered according to one's metabolism, the weather and the season. Prayers are said and acupuncture along with massage are considered important parts of the treatment.

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The 12 Year Calendar

The Mongol 12-year calendar has been in use since ancient times. Each of the 12 years distinguish themselves from one another through their own names; all years are named and now symbolised by the following 12 animals – mouse, cow, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog and the pig.

Traditionally, each year has unique characteristics that are similar to its name. For example, the year of the monkey will take on the monkey's personality traits: hyper and rambunctious. The result: a very long, difficult and harsh year.

At one point in time many Mongols wondered where and how this calendar was derived. As a result, a tale was created. The following is a short version of the tale.

Once upon a time during the ancient Hunuu times, God decided to create a "pattern of time". One day he made an announcement to the people: "I am creating a 12 year calendar ; however, I need 12 different names to distinguish each year. I've decided that tomorrow afternoon – the first twelve things that appear before me will receive one of the names, until I have named all 12." So, the following day, animals appeared before him. The first 11 were monkey, cow, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, cock, dog and pig. However, the 12th animal that appeared before him were 2; the camel and the mouse. God did not know which to choose. Both would be good representatives because he created both. The camel is proud, big and self-confident and the mouse is the opposite: quiet, shy and modest. God decided to have a contest for the 12th year. The following day, the mouse and camel were to watch for the sun to rise. The first to see it rise would go back immediately to God and tell him. The camel, being proud, propped himself on a hill facing the east where the sun always rises. He was confident that he would see the sun rise first because he thought of himself as very intelligent. The little mouse, sitting on the camel's hump, faced the west, the opposite direction. Finally, when the sun began to rise, the mouse saw its reflection on the mountains he was staring at. Thus the mouse had won the contest.

Although the camel is not one of the 12 years of the calendar, it is indeed still a part of it. On many written calendars, the camel is often showing. The camel is considered a very important part of Mongol society and its relationship with the calendar is that, in some way, the camel represents all 12 years, or 12 animals. This representation is as follows:

Camel's Characteristic Other Animal
Ears - Mouse
Stomach - Cow
Hooves - Tiger
Nose - Rabbit
Body - Dragon
Eyes - Snake
Mane - Horse
Hair - Sheep
Humps - Monkey
Head - Cock
Hind - Legs Dog
Tail - Pig

The 12-year calendar is used in many Asian countries. Just as each country likes to believe they created it, Mongolia is no different. However, what's most important is the strong belief in the calendar that the majority of Mongols hold.

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Lifestyle

The Mongols are shy by nature. They often hide their confusion or embarrassment behind a smile. Most of the Mongols are taciturn, reticent, tolerant, and some people say, superstitious. Fussiness and inconsistency are considered undignified. At the same time, the Mongol may grow very excited when playing a game, or boil over in anger.

The Mongols do not like to talk about unpleasant things. It is believed that such talk may invoke trouble. It is even more impermissible to say bad things about friends and acquaintances. If at times something unpleasant has to be said, people try to do it as tactfully and inoffensively as possible. On the other hand, expressions of good will and praise are widespread. Praise of their mother country, the beauty of the natural scenery, the hospitality of the host, etc., presents a special form of folklore.

Foreign guests remark on Mongolian friendliness. The hard conditions of life, far from embittering them, gave rise to the long-standing traditions of friendliness and hospitality. The host is well aware that the wayfarer entering his ger is tired and may still have a long way to go. Of course, he has also found himself in similar situations more than once. And so he does his best to anticipate and satisfy his guest's wishes.

Such specific features as Mongolia's vast sparsely populated area, its rigorous climate and nomadic economy could not fail to make their imprint on the people's behaviour and the manner in which they express their thoughts and sentiments. Over the centuries the people of the steppe have developed their own ethics of social conduct.

There are many types of greeting in the Mongolian language that are used depending on the situation and the time. The townsfolk usually say "Sain bainuu?" which is equivalent to "How are you?" The expected answer is "Sain", which means "Fine". National ethics do not permit a negative answer. It is only later in conversation that you may mention your problems if you have any.

Countrymen often salute each other with the question "Are you wintering well?" or "Are you spending this spring in peace?" Needless to say, the greeting should suit the season. Shepherds ask each other "Are sheep grazing in peace?" or "Are your sheep fattening well?"

The word "peace" often figures in greetings and good wishes. In the Mongolian semantics it is equivalent to happiness. After all, when a person has no worries, he is at peace and, consequently, happy.

In the village, the guest finding his host or hostess at work expresses specific good wishes. For instance, if the hostess is milking the cow, he says, "May your bucket be brim full of milk." If she is beating wool, he says, "May the wool be as soft as silk." If the family are playing some game, his wish will be that everyone should win if only once. The answer to good wishes is always the same: "May it be as you say."

When you are talking to an elderly person whom you know you are expected to add the respectful "guay" to his name, for instance, Dorj-guay. Addressing a stranger who is older than you, say "Akh-aa" which can be translated as older brother or uncle.

Family Relations also have their ethics. We say for instance, "My Wife" and the "Father of my children". One always has to use the correct form of address depending on the person's age or position.

If in the cities a foreigner may safely behave like elsewhere in the world, in the countryside at every step he stumbles against all kinds of customs and traditions that he violates without even knowing it. Especially in the remote regions where traditions and customs are stronger. True, people are not offended if foreigners do something the wrong way because of their ignorance. "The ignorant will not be punished", the Mongols say.

In Mongolia it is not accepted to knock at the door of a ger or say, "Can I come in?" The guest as he approaches the ger is supposed to shout loudly, "Hold the dog!" ("Nokhoi Khori!" in Mongolian) even if there is no dog, for what he actually means is to let the host know that he is coming.

The host and hostess emerge from the ger wearing their hats and buttoned-up dels. As for the hats, if in Europe men take off their hats when greeting each other, in Mongolia the rules of good behaviour demand that they wear their hats in such cases. The host helps the guest dismount from his horse and takes him into the ger.

To begin with, the men exchange snuff bottles. Never mind if you do not have one. You should accept the host's snuff bottle, take some snuff and return it. The bottle should never be returned with the lid tightly on. Then the hostess begins to serve tea, often made in the guest's presence. It is not acceptable to ask the guest outright where he comes from and for what purpose. He should say this himself at some point during the conversation or after asking the traditional questions about the weather, the cattle, etc.

The hostess serves tea in a small bowl, holding it with both hands stretched out towards the guest, or with the right hand supporting the elbow with the left arm. The guest is supposed to accept the cup in the same fashion. It would be very proper to let down the sleeves for it is considered extremely impolite to expose your wrists.

The Mongols have their own ideas about the hearth, the ger and what is inside it, and the guest should take care to respect the old taboos. It is forbidden, for example, to pour water on the hearth or throw garbage into it, to touch the fire with a knife, step over the hearth or spill milk. Whistling in the ger or leaning against the supports is considered an ill omen.

In summer the host will offer you koumiss (fermented mare's milk) instead of tea.

To establish friendly relations it is customary to eat off a common plate and drink from a common cup, notably koumiss. The host fills the cup and hands it over to the guest. The latter drinks a little and returns the cup to the host who refills the cup and hands it over to another guest. The host drinks after all his guests have drunk from the cup.

Nobody will insist on the faultless observance of all the customs and rules but learning at least some before a visit to Mongolia would please your hosts and allow you to get a real feel of Mongolian culture.

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Music & Singing

Music is an important part of Mongolian culture. This is particularly the case in the countryside as families and friends will sing and play music together as a past time. A visitor to a countryside ger will often be coaxed into a song. Mongolians sing to their animals, sing about the environment, sing about nomadic lifestyles and sing about their patriotism.

Khoomi singing is a traditional form of song which comes from deep in the throat. Well trained voices are able to produce a whole range of sounds at once. The different combinations of sounds are said to represent the different landscapes within Mongolia.

Urtyn Duu or Long Songs are another form of vocal music, so called because of their length. Some famous singers have been able to memorise 20,000 verses. Most of the songs relate to stories about love or the countryside and are apparently best sung on horseback galloping crossing the steppe.

The most traditional of instruments is the morin huur or horse head fiddle. With two strings made from horse hair and a carved horses head it is most often used to accompany singing. Legend suggests the sounds produced are similar to those of the nomad's animals. The other instrument most often played is the Yatga (similar to a sitar).

Music is often played at traditional and religious gatherings such as weddings.

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The Ger

The Mongolian Ger is ideally suited to the country's extremes of climate and the people's nomadic way of life. It is a multipurpose dwelling that can be easily collapsed, transported to another place and put up again fully preserving its original shape. Being constantly on the move with herds of animals or being on military campaigns compelled Mongols to build gers on carts. Old books contain pictures of such gers, temporary abodes in which families of three or four could spend the night or find shelter. After some time the use of carts stopped because they were clumsy and the gers could not be hauled over long distances as there was the danger of getting stuck in the mud somewhere or tipping over.

The ger has two key components – the wooden framework and the felt cover. The wooden parts are the walls, the long poles, the round smoke escape and its supports. One wall consists of 10-15 wooden poles, each about 1.5m high, bound together in a way making it possible to fold it for transportation and then unfold like an accordion. The unfolded walls are connected to form a circle. The long poles are fastened to the upper part of the walls, with the other end passed through the round support at the top of the ger, the only window and smoke escape in the ger. Two posts prop up the round support. All this forms the wooden framework of the ger, which resembles an open umbrella. Two layers of felt are then laid on the roof and on the walls and tied down with hair rope. The top of the ger has a felt flap that can be drawn over the roof when the weather is bad.

Inside the ger, felt is laid either on a wooden floor or straight on the ground. The door of the ger always faces south towards the sun. The number of walls and poles determines the size of the ger. Most herders' gers have five walls, which make a living area of 16-18 sq. m. Larger gers can have up to 12 walls.

In the centre of the ger is the hearth, which has a special meaning for the Mongols. Apart from its utilitarian purpose, the hearth symbolizes ties with ancestors. There are several customs associated with hearth. Desecration of the hearth is a sin and an insult to the master of the house. The hearth is mounted on three stones, which symbolize the host, the hostess and the daughter-in-law. The hearth is the centre of the ger and divides the ger space into three conventional areas – the male and female quarters and the khoimor.

The male quarters are on the western side. Here the host keeps the saddle, the horse bridle and the koumiss bag. The female quarters are on the eastern side where she keeps the kitchenware and appliances.

Accordingly, a man entering the ger goes straight to the western part and a woman to the eastern part. It is believed that the male quarters are under the protection of heaven and the sun patronizes the female quarters. The most honoured place is the khoimor by the northern wall, opposite the door. Here, they keep objects dear to the master of the house, his weapons, his Morin Huur (musical instrument) and the host's horse bridle. Pieces of furniture, usually two wooden chests, painted bright orange, are also placed in the khoimor. Framed photographs of the host's family and friends are put on the chests for everyone to see. If the host has some governmental award, he is sure to hang it in the khoimor.

When guests visit, the hosts usually sit on the eastern side of the khoimor and the guests on the western side. The hostess' place is by the hearth and the children are supposed to sit near her but closer to the door.

The bed of the host and hostess is in the female quarters; those for guests are on the opposite side. The children are put to sleep at their parents' feet.

There are many philosophical ideas on the ger, its parts and functions. The smoke escape is the only opening through which light penetrates the ger. An old legend has it that it was through such a hole that a fair-haired man got into the ger of Alangua, the Mongols' ancestral mother, and begot three sons. In olden days people could tell the time by the sun's rays falling on the cross-pieces of the smoke escape and on the poles. The Mongols divided the day into twelve hours and each hour into twelve minutes, which they called by the names of the lunar calendar animals.

A hair rope, chagtaga, is fastened to the smoke escape from which a weight stabilising the ger is suspended during strong winds. In new gers, they fasten a khadag to it, a piece of blue silk in which a handful of grain is wrapped. The symbolism of this ritual can be summed up like this – "May happiness multiply in this new ger like grains of corn and may life be pure and beautiful here."

The ger supports ensure stability and that is probably why tradition forbids touching, let alone leaning against them. Moreover, they symbolise a link with Heaven, with the past-present-future axis supposedly passing through them.

In winter the hearth heats the ger and also serves as a stove for cooking. In wooded areas, the hearth is stocked with firewood while in the desert and steppe, dry dung is used. The ger warms up quickly and holds in the heat. In the summer heat the lower part of the felt cover is raised to let in fresh air.

The ger, round and squat, can withstand harsh winds while the quick drying felt is good protection against the rain and snow. In the towns and urban-type settlements, gers are being ousted by modern well-built housing. Young Mongols prefer to live in comfortable flats. In summer, however, urban dwellers often spend their vacations in gers, leaving the urban conveniences for a short while to enjoy the unmatched comfort of the ger.

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Cultural Tips

You are almost inevitably going to encounter the residents of the countryside. Things move slowly here and the standards of living you are used to are not the same. Part of Mongolia’s charm is its ancient customs and traditions. If you can learn and respect them before you step into the countryside, then you may get a more welcome reception. You may also become a small part in helping to preserve these traditions for future visitors.

Don’t

- let a post or fence come between you if you are walking with Mongolians
- whistle inside a ger or house belonging to a Mongolian
- let your feet point in the direction of the altar (which will be in the north side) when
   sitting in a ger, - let people walk     over your outstretched legs
- tread on the threshold of the ger when you walk over it
- lean against a support column furniture or wall of the ger
- stamp out a fire or put water or any rubbish on it; fire is sacred
- walk in front of an older person
- turn your back to the altar and religious objects at the back of the ger
- touch other people’s hats
- have long conversations in your own language in front of hosts who don’t understand it
- point a knife in the direction of anyone
- pass anything to a Mongolian with just two fingers
- take food from a plate with your left hand
- wave you sleeve as it is a mark of protest or extend the little finger of your right hand,    as this is a sign of disrespect

Do

- keep your hat on when entering a ger, if you are wearing one, but lift it as a sign of greeting
- receive things with the right hand or both hands and ensure that your sleeves are rolled down
- ensure you remove your gloves when shaking hands, if you are wearing them
- walk round inside the ger in a clockwise direction
- receive food, a gift or anything similar from a Mongolian with both hands or with the right hand
supported at the wrist or elbow
- take at least a sip or nibble of the delicacies offered
- pick up things with an open hand, with your palm facing upwards
- grab the hand of a Mongolian if you have accidentally kicked their feet
- sit with your feet underneath you of cross-legged
- leave a small gift, other than money, for your hosts

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Food

The Mongolian diet really depends on where you are in Mongolia and what time of year it is. In the south a staple diet of mutton and camel with camel dairy products is the norm. However, in the Khangai Mountains, beef is more common. In the city of Ulaanbaatar, there is a much larger range of foods, for both Mongolian and Foreign people. The Mongolian climate means that the calorific intake needs to be higher in the winter months than in the summer. For this reason, herders will often eat boiled animal fat.

Vegetables are a relatively recent addition to the Mongolian diet. In the past dairy products and undercooked meat compensated the vitamin shortage. Some dishes were seasoned with wild onions and garlic.

Mongolian's believe that the most parts of their livestock can be eaten. Sheep are slaughtered by a traditional method, which allows the meat to stay clean, and which prevents heavy blood loss. A cut is made in the chest of the sheep and the heart artery is severed. The carcass is divided into several large parts – neck, brisket, ribs, blades, loin, rump and legs. Boned meat is used to make several dishes including bansh and buutz.

In the countryside food tends to be cooked once a day, unless guests arrive. In the morning and afternoon, milk tea is drunk with Boortsog (butter biscuits fried in oil) and meat boiled the night before. Food is only cooked for summer. Most of the time it is boiled meat and broth to which noodles, rice or other groats are added to taste.

Boodog is perhaps the most traditional Mongolian dish. It is prepared from goat or marmot meat. Removing the bones and bowels from the skinned carcass through the neck, they put red-hot stones inside and close the neck opening. Then the carcass is barbecued. The meat roasted this way is tender, tasty and fragrant.

The bowels of slaughtered sheep and goats are used for making sausage. The process appears simple at first sight: the thoroughly rinsed intestines are stuffed with finely chopped bowels, fat and blood and spices, salt, onions or garlic are added. But only a good housewife knows what components to use and in what proportions.

The Mongol's nomadic way of life and the country's climatic conditions have given rise to specific methods of preserving meat. The most widespread one is air-drying. Beef is cut into long strips that are hung in the shade. The meat dries very quickly, becoming so hard that you cannot cut it with a knife. Before use, dried meat is powdered and then put into boiling water.

With the advent of spring and the beginning of calving and lambing, Mongols switch to diary products including koumiss. It would be hard to list all the dishes prepared from the milk of the five domestic animals. There are all kinds of sour milk, curds and cheese that are eaten separately or in dishes made with them, which have their specific names. The same dishes prepared from milk of different animals differ from each other. Preference is usually given to cow's milk.

Foreigners who have visited Mongolia notice that Mongols always boil milk and never use it all by itself. They either dilute it with hot water to obtain the so-called khyaram or add it to tea. Salt and milk are indispensable components of Mongolian tea. Mongols use a variety of tea pressed into large cubes. This variety only grows in Central Asia and China.

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Festivals

Tsagaan sar
Although winter is long in Mongolia and it may be very cold in March and April, it is an accepted practice to mark the advent of Spring in February.

It coincides with the New Year celebrations according to the oriental lunar calendar. Some researchers believe that the lunar calendar was invented by the nomadic tribes of Central Asia. Living in contact with nature and noticing the natural cycles, the nomads had long organised their life according the lunar phases. Old sources testify to the existence of the Mongolian lunar calendar with twelve months in a year to which an extra month was added every four years. Each month had its own name, for example, Cuckoo, Deer, Flood. Later, the Tibetans and Chinese rationalised the calendar.

The calendar uses a base system of twelve, with the century consisting of twelve years, the year of twelve months and the day of 12 hours. According to Mongol-Tibetan cosmology, the world is built on the interaction of five elements – iron, earth, fire, water and wood – whose colours are white, yellow, red, black and blue respectively. Each year comes five times under the signs of the five elements, thus making a sixty year cycle.

Tsagaan Tsar translates as White Month. The origins of the name can be related to white symbolising happiness and purity or the fact that it is the start of the lactating and breeding periods. The approaching spring brings an abundance of milk and dairy products. The holiday is dependent on the phases of the moon and falls anywhere between the end of January and early March.

Families start preparing for the holiday at least a month in advance. First of all there is a tradition to prepare plenty of gifts and food. Gers, sheds and pens should be cleaned out. Every Mongol family makes hundreds of Buutz and makes or buys new clothes. According to custom, the fattest sheep should be killed and the lower back and tail boiled and served on the table for the entire holiday. Tsagaan Tsar symbolises wealth and prosperity in the family.

The New Year's Eve is called 'Bituun' – the last dinner of the old year. Beginning at noon, the wife starts cleaning the ger. Everything must be spotless. Then the table, the centrepiece of celebrations is laid with several dishes – the boiled sheep's back, a dish with traditional bread biscuits, a dish of beresee (rice cooked with butter, sugar and raisins) and a dish with traditional milk products (aruul, unsalted cheese and cream). All these dishes should be eaten that evening after the stars have come out. Incense sticks and candles are lit and strong tea is made. The first drinking bowl is sprinkled to the four parts of the globe, the second is presented to the host and then the other guests can drink. The host takes one sip and then touches the sacrum nine times with his hand. This is the sign for the hostess to serve tea, first to the oldest and then the children. After the traditional ceremony which proceeds any meal in Mongolia, the host begins to cut the lamb sacrum, the carcass is distributed among them. After that the other above mentioned dishes are served in a sequence. Incidentally, according to the custom, strong drinks can only by people older than 40.

The following morning everyone rises bright and early according to tradition. There are many customs to follow. The first is to greet the sun; everyone watches the sun rise. Second, in order to have good health and happiness in the new year, each individual must take their 'first steps of the New Year'. The lunar year of birth and the current year will dictate which direction you will need to walk.

After the first steps are taken, all family members re-enter their home and start the Tsagaan Tsar greetings. The oldest member is greeted first and sits at the northern side of the ger. The next oldest member of the family then greets him or her and carries a khadag – a piece of blue silk – across their palms. A cup filled with milk is placed in the right hand on the silk. The greeting normally said is "Sar shin saikhan shinelch baina uu?"as the milk and khadag are given to the oldest member of the family. The younger member of the family has his or her palms facing upwards and grasps the older one's elbows. The older member has palms faced down and the arms are above the younger's. While this is occurring, the two kiss one another on the cheek or touch cheeks.

On this day, all family members show their respect and love through this greeting. After the second oldest member has finished the greeting, the other family members greet the oldest member. They continue to greet one another and give gifts. The value of the gift is not important. A packet of cigarettes and some socks will suffice. The important thing is consideration. Older people are given khadags and younger people, sweets. Often each member of the family and guests will offer their snuff bottles to one another.

In the past countryside residents would honour nature by going to an ovoo – a pile of stones raised on a hill or mountain top. People would go there with trays of food and other offerings and the oldest would voice words of gratitude and praise to the spirit of the mountain and the neighbourhood.

At Tsagaan Tsar, as on other holidays, people sing songs. The host serves a drink to his guests in turn and he who gets the cup should rise to his feet and sing a song to be supported by everyone else present. It is considered impolite to refuse to sing, "to demonstrate one's talents" as the Mongols say.

On the first evening of the New Year, people also play games. They play khorol – a kind of domino cut from wood and with pictures of lunar animals and shagai or dice.

After the greetings, the food is placed on the table and the eating and drinking begins again. The hostess continually cooks, serves and cleans, with the help of her children, as visitors come and go. The greetings and gift-giving continue all day and up to the fifteenth day after Tsagaan Tsar. The holiday is then said to be finished although in the cities, it is finished a lot earlier.

Naadam & the Three Manly Sports
The sports most popular with the Mongols since ancient times are wrestling, horse racing and archery. Together they form Eriin Gurvan Naadam – the three manly sports.

The three manly sports make up the core program of the National Day festivity which has been held annually for the past two centuries. Earlier, Naadam was often associated with religious ceremonies (worshipping the spirit of the mountains, the rocks and the rivers). At present it is a national holiday held 11-13th July each year to commemorate the Mongol People's Revolution.

This tradition was set by D.Sukhbaatar, the founder of the people's state in 1922, when competitions in national types of sport were held to commemorate the first anniversary of the People's Revolution.

On July 11 local competitions are also held in some Aimags and Sums to choose the best sportsmen of that area. Small contests involve over a hundred athletes and some larger ones have over a thousand.

The Naadam Festival is now a major tourist attraction. The first day starts with a colourful marching display of soldiers outside Government House in Sukhbaatar Square, playing brass instruments and being accompanied by Mongolians dressed in warrior outfits. The opening ceremony takes place at the Naadam Stadium with more marching by the military, athletes and monks. A similar closing ceremony takes place on the second day in the evening. The horse racing is held a small distance away from the stadium at a place called Yarmag. There is always plenty to see and it's even possible to pitch a tent along with all the competitors.

The traditional style of wrestling has its own long-standing ritual. Each wrestler wears ornamental knee boots with upturned toes, tight trunks and an open-fronted, long sleeved vest of silk. With arms imitating the flight of a bird, he performs the eagle dance, which symbolises power and invincibility.

Supposedly, the vest was changed in design to an open-fronted vest after a woman was found to have taken part in the event and won!

By ancient tradition, when a wrestler appears before spectators, his posture and body movements should resemble those of a lion and his arms should imitate the flight of the mythical bird of Gharid. It is difficult to present a likeness of a bird never seen by anyone, but centuries old wrestling traditions and experienced heralds have come to help. There are a variety of tricks in Mongol wrestling, which require not only strength but perfect technique. The most important things is the utmost plasticity of body movement. The one who forces his rival to kneel on the ground or to touch it with his elbow is the winner. At the end, one of the wrestlers passes under the arm of the other. It is not the loser that passes under the arm of the winner, but the one with the highest wrestling title.

National wrestling is held in several rounds, depending on the number of participants, which also determines the duration of the competition. Before the People's Revolution, 1028 participants used to take part in the competition, which could last up to 7 days. The competition attracted fans from many different quarters, sometimes from the most remote places.

Nowadays, during the National Day celebrations, some 512 contestants usually take part in the wrestling competition, the winner is known after 9 rounds. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities take part in the competition. The losers must quit the competition, but depending on the number of victories, the winners are honoured with ancient titles – the winner of the fifth round gets the title of falcon, of the seventh and eighth rounds elephant and of the tenth and eleventh rounds, lion. The wrestler who has two consecutive champion titles is awarded the title of Titan. Every subsequent victory at the National Naadam will add an epithet (additional titles to consecutive winners) to his average title, like Invincible Titan, or Invincible Titan to be remembered by all.

Children start to learn wrestling from an early age and although it appears as play, the youngsters take their wrestling seriously.

The second element of the Three Manly Sports is horse racing. Originally, adults took part in this competition, and the most popular contests were in riding previously unbroken horses. Later, so as to ease the burden on horses in long-distance races, the adults were replaced by children aged from six to ten, who quickly master the art of riding. Horse racing is organised in celebration of the National Day and the traditional New Year – Tsagaan Tsar – and on other notable occasions.

Horses aged two years and above take part. Mostly there are seven groups – two, three, four, five and six year olds, stallions and amblers. Horse training begins two or three months prior to Naadam. Each rider has his own ways and methods which he is usually reluctant to reveal. During training the trainer finds the best pastures for the horse to graze on. Of course, the goal of the trainer is to get the horse into the best shape possible. For this purpose, the horse is trained during the hottest time of the day and driven uphill with sheepskin wrapped around its body. Besides that, the horse has to be taught not to stop during the race no matter what may happen. Cases are known of little riders falling off the horse which nevertheless ran on and was first at the finish.

Depending on the age of the horses, distances vary from 5 to 30 km (30km was the distance between two postal stations in olden days). All participants start simultaneously. The winner is honoured with a cup of airag which he drinks and sprinkles on the head and rear of the horse. The first five horses are sprinkled with airag; they are commonly known as Airagyn tav. After the race, some of the best singers in the country congratulate the best riders and their horses with their songs of praise and congratulations.

The third element of the national competitions is archery, which has been perfected over centuries. Sharpshooters used to hit the head of a marmot from a distance of 100,. Small round leather targets are put at a distance of 60-100 m from the archers. The archers wear a special glove on the thumb and index finger of the right hand and wrap the left arm up to the elbow in soft belts. The arrow has blunt bone heads. The referees, lined up to the targets, mark each hit. When the target is hit they raise their hands and move around the spot singing a shot song of praise. The best archer receives the title of mergen (marksmen)

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Religion

Interest in Buddhism as a national religion began with Chinggis Khan. He employed the Buddhist Uigur people as teachers and state officials. The Uigur were a respected people and had great cultural influence over the Mongols. Chinggis Khan also held meetings with Buddhist leaders during his reign. In his will, he instructed his successor, Ogedei Khan to invite a Tibetan lama to conduct Buddhist services at Kharakhorum. This engaged practicing Shamans in Kharakhorum, as pantheistic Shamanism was the traditional faith of the Mongols.

Buddhism was not fully adopted as a state religion until the rule of Kubila Khan. He declared Buddhism to be the Yuan empire's official religion. Kubila Khan appointed the lama Lodijaltsan as spiritual leader and state teacher for the country. Lamas were officially exempted from military service and paying taxes. Despite these efforts by Kubila Khan, Buddhism did not become a widely-accepted religion in Mongolia. It was the religion of the aristocracy, and following the Tibetan empire's downfall, Buddhism lost its support and Shamanism was revived through to the mid sixteenth century.

In the second half of the sixteenth century, Yellow Hat sect Buddhism or Lamaism became prominent in Mongolia. Lamaism was adopted for political as well as social reasons. Politically, Lamaism was favoured because (1) Mongol aristocrats wanted their positions reinforced by religious figures, (2) Tibetan Yellow Hat proponents sought allies among the Mongol rulers against the Red Hat sect, and (3) the Ming empire in China saw Lamaism as a means of pacifying their warlike Mongol neighbours.

In 1577, Altan Khan invited the religious head of Tibet to Mongolia, as Altan Khan was intent upon unifying Mongolia under Lamaism. Altan Khan incorporated Buddhist beliefs into laws which made for a legal basis to abolish the practices of Shamanism. Altan Khan's campaign was continued by Avtai Sain Khan, who met with the third Dalai Lama in 1586. At this meeting, it was decided that the Zuu temple in Kharakhorum would be established as the Mongol Centre of Lamaism. Soon thereafter, the other monasteries and schools for Lamaism opened under the directive of Zanabazar, the head of the Lamaist religion in Mongolia. Zanabazar worked diligently to spread Lamaism to all people, nobles and commoners alike. Lamaism continued to gain popularity for the following 200 years, or until the Mongol People's Revolution.

During the period referred to as the "Left Deviation" (1929-1932) approximately 300 monasteries were closed in an effort to increase Mongolia's workforce by encouraging lamas to work outside of the monasteries. Some lamas left in fear of persecution, only to return to the monasteries in 1932, the beginning of the New Turn movement: a movement in which efforts were directed towards persuasion, education and propaganda. By 1936 there were 767 monasteries - including more than 300 closed during 1929-1932 - and over 100,000 lamas, including an increase of 10,000 during the period immediately following the Left Deviation. At this time, the adult lamas represented over forty percent of the adult male population - a problem for a socialist country.

In the mid 1930s, the communist party implemented the "liquidation of the church as an organisation" due, in part, to rumours of the political uprisings against the government being rooted in the monasteries. At this time, lamas were 'strongly encouraged' to leave the monasteries and begin secular lifestyles. By 1938, approximately 20,000 of the lamas had become herders, 5,000 were organised into government cooperatives, young lamas were enlisted in the military and child lamas were returned to their families. And the rest? Many were victims of the burning and bombing of monasteries during the mid 1930s. 1937 is said to be one of the worst years in Mongol history, as hundreds of monasteries were destroyed, tens of thousands of Buddhist books were burned, and most of the 100,000 lamas were persuaded into secular lifestyles or killed.

Over the next 40 years, Mongols worshipped in fear. Older Buddhists continued to attend the central monastery, the Gandan, which averaged 100 lamas, or the Gobi's monastery, which averaged 40 lamas. Younger people worshipped in the privacy of their homes or ceased to worship altogether.

Now that Mongolia is an independent country, the Buddhists are experiencing a revival. Young males are attending the monastery schools and many of the lamas who were forced into secular lives during the 1930s have returned to the monasteries to continue lifestyles they originally chose to pursue. In 1990, the women's monastery was opened in Ulaanbaatar by a group of 20 Buddhist women.

However, all is not calm on the religious front: missionaries are spreading across the country, attempting to convert the Mongols to western religions.

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Language

Mongolian, belongs to the Altai group of languages (which include Finnish, Turkish, Kazak, Uzbek and Korean. It is spoken by about 7 million people in the world including Mongolians, Inner Mongolians, Buriyats, Kalkmycks and Tuvinians. In Mongolian speech organs such as the nose and larynx take relatively less participation but tongue, teeth, palate and lips take an active part in producing sounds. It is a language rich in vocabulary so it has an ample opportunity to translate from any foreign language rendering the meaning of different expressions and ideas.

Because of the specific mode of life, customs and environments, there are a lot of terms and expressions not easy to translate into other languages and render their meanings. There are also many proverbs relating to Mongolian life (for example – While your father is alive, get acquainted with people, while you have horses, go and see far away lands.)

The Mongol script has five main vowels and 22 consonants and is written vertically. It can be written quickly and therefore considered similar to shorthand. In many cases, the Mongolian writing system does not correspond with pronunciation. In this respect it is similar to written and spoken English. Because of these complications, Mongols tried to adopt the Square (Pags-pa) script in 1269, the Todu Script in 1648, the Soyombo Script in 1686 and the Cyrillic Script in 1941.

The latter, Cyrillic Script was successfully adopted unlike the others, and helped to erase illiteracy among the population. The Mongolian Cyrillic Alphabet has 35 letters. There have been attempts to revive the old Mongolian Script but so far, there has been little success.

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Sports

Mongolia's most popular sports, both in terms of participation and spectating are the three 'manly' sports of wrestling, archery and horseracing. In addition, the younger generation are now enjoying snooker, basketball and winter sports. For more information on the major sports, see the section above.

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Arts

Mongolian art and culture are almost always based on the nomadic lifestyles of ancestors. Although Ulaanbaatar is now a modern city, there are still many performances of dance, music and drama that are based on history. There is a real renaissance of original culture. For detailed information on Mongolian Art, Click Here to visit asianart.com.

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